MacTech 1 to 12/MacTech-vol-1-12.toast/Reference/FAQs on CD/C++ FAQ Lite (6⁄7)

Text File | 1997-01-17 | 48.3 KB | 1,036 lines | [TEXT/R*ch]

Archive-name: C++-faq/part6
Posting-Frequency: monthly
Last-modified: Jan 1, 1997
URL: http://www.cerfnet.com/~mpcline/c++-faq-lite/

AUTHOR: Marshall Cline / [e-mail] / Paradigm Shift, Inc. /
One Park St. / Norwood, NY 13668 / 315-353-6100 (voice) / 315-353-6110 (fax)

COPYRIGHT: This posting is part of "C++ FAQ Lite."  The entire "C++ FAQ Lite"
document is Copyright(C) 1991-96 Marshall P. Cline, Ph.D., [e-mail].
All rights reserved.  Copying is permitted only under designated situations.
For details, see section [1].

NO WARRANTY: THIS WORK IS PROVIDED ON AN "AS IS" BASIS.  THE AUTHOR PROVIDES NO
WARRANTY WHATSOEVER, EITHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, REGARDING THE WORK, INCLUDING
WARRANTIES WITH RESPECT TO ITS MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR
PURPOSE.

C++-FAQ-Lite != C++-FAQ-Book: This document, C++ FAQ Lite, is not the same as
the C++ FAQ Book.  The book (C++ FAQs, Cline and Lomow, Addison-Wesley) is 500%
larger than this document, and is available in bookstores.  For details, see
section [3].

==============================================================================

SECTION [24]: Inheritance -- private and protected inheritance


[24.1] How do you express "private inheritance"?

When you use : private instead of : public.  E.g.,

    class Foo : private Bar {
    public:
      // ...
    };

==============================================================================

[24.2] How are "private inheritance" and "composition" similar?

private inheritance is a syntactic variant of composition (has-a).

E.g., the "Car has-a Engine" relationship can be expressed using composition:

    class Engine {
    public:
      Engine(int numCylinders);
      void start();                 // Starts this Engine
    };

    class Car {
    public:
      Car() : e_(8) { }             // Initializes this Car with 8 cylinders
      void start() { e_.start(); }  // Start this Car by starting its Engine
    private:
      Engine e_;                    // Car has-a Engine
    };

The same "has-a" relationship can also be expressed using private inheritance:

    class Car : private Engine {    // Car has-a Engine
    public:
      Car() : Engine(8) { }         // Initializes this Car with 8 cylinders
      Engine::start;                // Start this Car by starting its Engine
    };

There are several similarities between these two forms of composition:
 * In both cases there is exactly one Engine member object contained in a Car
 * In neither case can users (outsiders) convert a Car* to an Engine*

There are also several distinctions:
 * The first form is needed if you want to contain several Engines per Car
 * The second form can introduce unnecessary multiple inheritance
 * The second form allows members of Car to convert a Car* to an Engine*
 * The second form allows access to the protected members of the base class
 * The second form allows Car to override Engine's virtual[20] functions

Note that private inheritance is usually used to gain access into the
protected: members of the base class, but this is usually a short-term solution
(translation: a band-aid[24.3]).

==============================================================================

[24.3] Which should I prefer: composition or private inheritance?

Use composition when you can, private inheritance when you have to.

Normally you don't want to have access to the internals of too many other
classes, and private inheritance gives you some of this extra power (and
responsibility).  But private inheritance isn't evil; it's just more expensive
to maintain, since it increases the probability that someone will change
something that will break your code.

A legitimate, long-term use for private inheritance is when you want to build a
class Fred that uses code in a class Wilma, and the code from class Wilma needs
to invoke member functions from your new class, Fred.  In this case, Fred calls
non-virtuals in Wilma, and Wilma calls (usually pure virtuals[22.4]) in itself,
which are overridden by Fred.  This would be much harder to do with
composition.

    class Wilma {
    protected:
      void fredCallsWilma()
        {
          cout << "Wilma::fredCallsWilma()\n";
          wilmaCallsFred();
        }
      virtual void wilmaCallsFred() = 0;   // A pure virtual function[22.4]
    };

    class Fred : private Wilma {
    public:
      void barney()
        {
          cout << "Fred::barney()\n";
          Wilma::fredCallsWilma();
        }
    protected:
      virtual void wilmaCallsFred()
        {
          cout << "Fred::wilmaCallsFred()\n";
        }
    };

==============================================================================

[24.4] Should I pointer-cast from a private derived class to its base class?

Generally, No.

From a member function or friend[14] of a privately derived class, the
relationship to the base class is known, and the upward conversion from
PrivatelyDer* to Base* (or PrivatelyDer& to Base&) is safe; no cast is needed
or recommended.

However users of PrivateDer should avoid this unsafe conversion, since it is
based on a private decision of PrivateDer, and is subject to change without
notice.

==============================================================================

[24.5] How is protected inheritance related to private inheritance?

Similarities: both allow overriding virtual[20] functions in the
private/protected base class, neither claims the derived is a kind-of its base.

Dissimilarities: protected inheritance allows derived classes of derived
classes to know about the inheritance relationship.  Thus your grand kids are
effectively exposed to your implementation details.  This has both benefits (it
allows subclasses of the protected derived class to exploit the relationship to
the protected base class) and costs (the protected derived class can't change
the relationship without potentially breaking further derived classes).

Protected inheritance uses the : protected syntax:

    class Car : protected Engine {
    public:
      // ...
    };

==============================================================================

[24.6] What are the access rules with private and protected inheritance?

Take these classes as examples:

    class B                    { /*...*/ };
    class D_priv : private   B { /*...*/ };
    class D_prot : protected B { /*...*/ };
    class D_publ : public    B { /*...*/ };
    class UserClass            { B b; /*...*/ };

None of the subclasses can access anything that is private in B.  In D_priv,
the public and protected parts of B are private.  In D_prot, the public and
protected parts of B are protected.  In D_publ, the public parts of B are
public and the protected parts of B are protected (D_publ is-a-kind-of-a B).
class UserClass can access only the public parts of B, which "seals off"
UserClass from B.

To make a public member of B so it is public in D_priv or D_prot, state the
name of the member with a B:: prefix.  E.g., to make member B::f(int,float)
public in D_prot, you would say:

    class D_prot : protected B {
    public:
      B::f;    // Note: Not B::f(int,float)
    };

==============================================================================

SECTION [25]: Coding standards


[25.1] What are some good C++ coding standards?

Thank you for reading this answer rather than just trying to set your own
coding standards.

But beware that some people on comp.lang.c++ are very sensitive on this issue.
Nearly every software engineer has, at some point, been exploited by someone
who used coding standards as a "power play." Furthermore some attempts to set
C++ coding standards have been made by those who didn't know what they were
talking about, so the standards end up being based on what was the
state-of-the-art when the standards setters where writing code.  Such
impositions generate an attitude of mistrust for coding standards.

Obviously anyone who asks this question wants to be trained so they don't run
off on their own ignorance, but nonetheless posting a question such as this one
to comp.lang.c++ tends to generate more heat than light.

==============================================================================

[25.2] Are coding standards necessary? Are they sufficient?

Coding standards do not make non-OO programmers into OO programmers; only
training and experience do that.  If coding standards have merit, it is that
they discourage the petty fragmentation that occurs when large organizations
coordinate the activities of diverse groups of programmers.

But you really want more than a coding standard.  The structure provided by
coding standards gives neophytes one less degree of freedom to worry about,
which is good.  However pragmatic guidelines should go well beyond
pretty-printing standards.  Organizations need a consistent philosophy of
design and implementation.  E.g., strong or weak typing? references or pointers
in interfaces? stream I/O or stdio? should C++ code call C code? vice versa?
how should ABCs[22.3] be used? should inheritance be used as an implementation
technique or as a specification technique? what testing strategy should be
employed? inspection strategy? should interfaces uniformly have a get() and/or
set() member function for each data member? should interfaces be designed from
the outside-in or the inside-out? should errors be handled by try/catch/throw
or by return codes? etc.

What is needed is a "pseudo standard" for detailed design. I recommend a
three-pronged approach to achieving this standardization: training,
mentoring[26.1], and libraries.  Training provides "intense instruction,"
mentoring allows OO to be caught rather than just taught, and high quality C++
class libraries provide "long term instruction." There is a thriving commercial
market for all three kinds of "training." Advice by organizations who have been
through the mill is consistent: Buy, Don't Build. Buy libraries, buy training,
buy tools, buy consulting.  Companies who have attempted to become a
self-taught tool-shop as well as an application/system shop have found success
difficult.

Few argue that coding standards are "ideal," or even "good," however they are
necessary in the kind of organizations/situations described above.

The following FAQs provide some basic guidance in conventions and styles.

==============================================================================

[25.3] Should our organization determine coding standards from our C
       experience?

No!

No matter how vast your C experience, no matter how advanced your C expertise,
being a good C programmer does not make you a good C++ programmer.  Converting
from C to C++ is more than just learning the syntax and semantics of the ++
part of C++.  Organizations who want the promise of OO, but who fail to put the
"OO" into "OO programming", are fooling themselves; the balance sheet will show
their folly.

C++ coding standards should be tempered by C++ experts.  Asking comp.lang.c++
is a start.  Seek out experts who can help guide you away from pitfalls.  Get
training.  Buy libraries and see if "good" libraries pass your coding
standards.  Do not set standards by yourself unless you have considerable
experience in C++.  Having no standard is better than having a bad standard,
since improper "official" positions "harden" bad brain traces.  There is a
thriving market for both C++ training and libraries from which to pool
expertise.

One more thing: whenever something is in demand, the potential for charlatans
increases.  Look before you leap.  Also ask for student-reviews from past
companies, since not even expertise makes someone a good communicator.
Finally, select a practitioner who can teach, not a full time teacher who has a
passing knowledge of the language/paradigm.

==============================================================================

[25.4] Is the ?: operator evil since it can be used to create unreadable code?
       [NEW!]

[Recently created (on 1/97).]

No, but as always, remember that readability is one of the most important
things.

Some people feel the ?: ternary operator should be avoided because they find it
confusing at times compared to the good old if statement.  In many cases ?:
tends to make your code more difficult to read (and therefore you should
replace those usages of ?: with if statements), but there are times when the ?:
operator is clearer since it can emphasize what's really happening, rather than
the fact that there's an if in there somewhere.

Let's start with a really simple case.  Suppose you need to print the result of
a function call.  In that case you should put the real goal (printing) at the
beginning of the line, and bury the function call within the line since it's
relatively incidental (this left-right thing is based on the intuitive notion
that most developers think the first thing on a line is the most important
thing):

    // Preferred (emphasizes the major goal -- printing):
    cout << funct();

    // Not as good (emphasizes the minor goal -- a function call):
    functAndPrintOn(cout);

Now let's extend this idea to the ?: operator.  Suppose your real goal is to
print something, but you need to do some incidental decision logic to figure
out what should be printed.  Since the printing is the most important thing
conceptually, we prefer to put it first on the line, and we prefer to bury the
incidental decision logic.  In the example code below, variable n represents
the number of senders of a message; the message itself is being printed to
cout:

    int n = /*...*/;   // number of senders

    // Preferred (emphasizes the major goal -- printing):
    cout << "Please get back to " << (n==1 ? "me" : "us") << " soon!\n";

    // Not as good (emphasizes the minor goal -- a decision):
    cout << "Please get back to ";
    if (n==1)
      cout << "me";
    else
      cout << "us";
    cout << " soon!\n";

All that being said, you can get pretty outrageous and unreadable code ("write
only code") using various combinations of ?:, &&, ||, etc.  For example,

    // Preferred (obvious meaning):
    if (f())
      g();

    // Not as good (harder to understand):
    f() && g();

Personally I think the explicit if example is clearer since it emphasizes the
major thing that's going on (a decision based on the result of calling f())
rather than the minor thing (calling f()).  In other words, the use of if here
is good for precisely the same reason that it was bad above: we want to major
on the majors and minor on the minors.

In any event, don't forget that readability is the goal (at least it's one of
the goals).  Your goal should not be to avoid certain syntactic constructs such
as ?: or && or || or if -- or even goto.  If you sink to the level of a
"Standards Bigot," you'll ultimately embarass yourself since there are always
counterexamples to any syntax-based rule.  If on the other hand you emphasize
broad goals and guidelines (e.g., "major on the majors," or "put the most
important thing first on the line," or even "make sure your code is obvious and
readable"), you're usually much better off.

Code must be written to be read, not by the compiler, but by another human
being.

==============================================================================

[25.5] Should I declare locals in the middle of a function or at the top?

Declare near first use.

An object is initialized (constructed) the moment it is declared.  If you don't
have enough information to initialize an object until half way down the
function, you should create it half way down the function when it can be
initialized correctly.  Don't initialize it to an "empty" value at the top then
"assign" it later.  The reason for this is runtime performance.  Building an
object correctly is faster than building it incorrectly and remodeling it
later.  Simple examples show a factor of 350% speed hit for simple classes like
String.  Your mileage may vary; surely the overall system degradation will be
less that 350%, but there will be degradation.  Unnecessary degradation.

A common retort to the above is: "we'll provide set() member functions for
every datum in our objects so the cost of construction will be spread out."
This is worse than the performance overhead, since now you're introducing a
maintenance nightmare.  Providing a set() member function for every datum is
tantamount to public data: you've exposed your implementation technique to the
world.  The only thing you've hidden is the physical names of your member
objects, but the fact that you're using a List and a String and a float, for
example, is open for all to see.

Bottom line: Locals should be declared near their first use.  Sorry that this
isn't familiar to C experts, but new doesn't necessarily mean bad.

==============================================================================

[25.6] What source-file-name convention is best? foo.cpp? foo.C? foo.cc?

If you already have a convention, use it.  If not, consult your compiler to see
what the compiler expects.  Typical answers are: .C, .cc, .cpp, or .cxx
(naturally the .C extension assumes a case-sensitive file system to distinguish
.C from .c).

At Paradigm Shift, Inc., we have used both .cpp for our C++ source files, and
we have also used .C.  In the latter case, we supply the compiler option forces
.c files to be treated as C++ source files (-Tdp for IBM CSet++, -cpp for
Zortech C++, -P for Borland C++, etc.) when porting to case-insensitive file
systems.  None of these approaches have any striking technical superiority to
the others; we generally use whichever technique is preferred by our customer
(again, these issues are dominated by business considerations, not by technical
considerations).

==============================================================================

[25.7] What header-file-name convention is best? foo.H? foo.hh? foo.hpp?

If you already have a convention, use it.  If not, and if you don't need your
editor to distinguish between C and C++ files, simply use .h.  Otherwise use
whatever the editor wants, such as .H, .hh, or .hpp.

At Paradigm Shift, Inc., we tend to use either .hpp or .h for our C++ header
files.

==============================================================================

[25.8] Are there any lint-like guidelines for C++?

Yes, there are some practices which are generally considered dangerous.
However none of these are universally "bad," since situations arise when even
the worst of these is needed:
 * A class Fred's assignment operator should return *this as a Fred& (allows
   chaining of assignments)
 * A class with any virtual[20] functions ought to have a virtual
   destructor[20.4]
 * A class with any of {destructor, assignment operator, copy constructor}
   generally needs all 3
 * A class Fred's copy constructor and assignment operator should have const in
   the parameter: respectively Fred::Fred(const Fred&) and
   Fred& Fred::operator= (const Fred&)
 * When initializing an object's member objects in the constructor, always use
   initialization lists rather than assignment.  The performance difference for
   user-defined classes can be substantial (3x!)
 * Assignment operators should make sure that self assignment[12.1] does
   nothing, otherwise you may have a disaster[12.2].  In some cases, this may
   require you to add an explicit test to your assignment operators[12.3].
 * In classes that define both += and +, a += b and a = a + b should generally
   do the same thing; ditto for the other identities of built-in types (e.g.,
   a += 1 and ++a; p[i] and *(p+i); etc).  This can be enforced by writing the
   binary operations using the op= forms.  E.g.,

       Fred operator+ (const Fred& a, const Fred& b)
       {
         Fred ans = a;
         ans += b;
         return ans;
       }

   This way the "constructive" binary operators don't even need to be
friends[14].  But it is sometimes possible to more efficiently implement common
operations (e.g., if class Fred is actually String, and += has to
reallocate/copy string memory, it may be better to know the eventual length
from the beginning).

==============================================================================

[25.9] Which is better: identifier names that_look_like_this or identifier
       names thatLookLikeThis?

It's a precedent thing.  If you have a Pascal or Smalltalk background,
youProbablySquashNamesTogether like this.  If you have an Ada background,
You_Probably_Use_A_Large_Number_Of_Underscores like this.  If you have a
Microsoft Windows background, you probably prefer the "Hungarian" style which
means you jkuidsPrefix vndskaIdentifiers ncqWith ksldjfTheir nmdsadType.  And
then there are the folks with a Unix C background, who abbr evthng n use vry
srt idntfr nms.

So there is no universal standard.  If your organization has a particular
coding standard for identifier names, use it.  But starting another Jihad over
this will create a lot more heat than light.  From a business perspective,
there are only two things that matter: The code should be generally readable,
and everyone in the organization should use the same style.

Other than that, th difs r minr.

==============================================================================

[25.10] Are there any other sources of coding standards? [UPDATED!]

[Recently rewrote and added more URLs (on 11/96).]

Yep, there are several.

Here are a few sources that you might be able to use as starting points for
developing your organization's coding standards:
 * A bunch of coding standards are provided at
   http://fndaub.fnal.gov:8000/standards/standards.html
 * The Ellemtel coding guidelines are available at
   - http://web2.airmail.net/~rks/ellhome.htm
   - http://www.rhi.hi.is/~harri/cpprules.html
   - http://euagate.eua.ericsson.se/pub/eua/c++
   - http://nestor.ceid.upatras.gr/programming/ellemtel/ellhome.htm
   - http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/lab/cplus/c++.rules/
 * Todd Hoff's coding standard guidelines are available at
   http://www.possibility.com/cpp.

Note: I do NOT warrant or endorse these URLs and/or their contents.  They are
listed as a public service only.  I haven't checked their details, so I don't
know if they'll help you or hurt you.  Caveat emptor.

==============================================================================

SECTION [26]: Learning OO/C++


[26.1] What is mentoring?

It's the most important tool in learning OO.

Object-oriented thinking is caught, not just taught.  Get cozy with someone who
really knows what they're talking about, and try to get inside their head and
watch them solve problems.  Listen.  Learn by emulating.

If you're working for a company, get them to bring someone in who can act as a
mentor and guide.  We've seen gobs and gobs of money wasted by companies who
"saved money" by simply buying their employees a book ("Here's a book; read it
over the weekend; on Monday you'll be an OO developer").

==============================================================================

[26.2] Should I learn C before I learn OO/C++?

Don't bother.

If your ultimate goal is to learn OO/C++ and you don't already know C, reading
books or taking courses in C will not only waste your time, but it will teach
you a bunch of things that you'll explicitly have to un-learn when you finally
get back on track and learn OO/C++ (e.g., malloc()[16.3], printf()[15.1],
unnecessary use of switch statements[20], error-code exception handling[17],
unnecessary use of #define macros[9.3], etc.).

If you want to learn OO/C++, learn OO/C++.  Taking time out to learn C will
waste your time and confuse you.

==============================================================================

[26.3] Should I learn Smalltalk before I learn OO/C++?

Don't bother.

If your ultimate goal is to learn OO/C++ and you don't already know Smalltalk,
reading books or taking courses in Smalltalk will not only waste your time, but
it will teach you a bunch of things that you'll explicitly have to un-learn
when you finally get back on track and learn OO/C++ (e.g., dynamic
typing[27.3], non-subtyping inheritance[27.5], error-code exception
handling[17], etc.).

Knowing a "pure" OO language doesn't make the transition to OO/C++ any easier.
This is not a theory; I speak from experience (Paradigm Shift, Inc.,
[e-mail], has trained and mentored literally thousands of software
professionals in OO).  In fact, Smalltalk experience can make it harder for
some people: they need to unlearn some rather deep notions about typing and
inheritance in addition to needing to learn new syntax and idioms.  This
unlearning process is especially painful and slow for those who cling to
Smalltalk with religious zeal ("C++ is not like Smalltalk, therefore C++ is
evil").

If you want to learn OO/C++, learn OO/C++.  Taking time out to learn Smalltalk
will waste your time and confuse you.

Note: I sit on both the ANSI C++ (X3J16) and ANSI Smalltalk (X3J20)
standardization committees[6.11].  I am not a language bigot[6.4].  I'm not
saying C++ is better or worse than Smalltalk; I'm simply saying that they are
different[27.1].

==============================================================================

[26.4] Should I buy one book, or several?

At least two.

There are two categories of insight and knowledge in OO programming using C++.
You're better off getting a "best of breed" book from each category rather than
trying to find a single book that does an OK job at everything.  The two OO/C++
programming categories are:
 * C++ legality guides -- what you can and can't do in C++[26.6].
 * C++ morality guides -- what you should and shouldn't do in C++[26.5].

Legality guides describe all language features with roughly the same level of
emphasis; morality guides focus on those language features that you will use
most often in typical programming tasks.  Legality guides tell you how to get a
given feature past the compiler; morality guides tell you whether or not to use
that feature in the first place.

Meta comments:
 * Neither of these categories is optional.  You must have a good grasp of
   both.
 * These categories do not trade off against each other.  You shouldn't argue
   in favor of one over the other.  They dove-tail.

==============================================================================

[26.5] What are some best-of-breed C++ morality guides?

Here's my personal (subjective and selective) short-list of must-read C++
morality guides, alphabetically by author:
 * Cline and Lomow, C++ FAQs, 461 pgs, Addison-Wesley, 1995, ISBN
   0-201-58958-3.  Covers 470 topics in a FAQ-like Q&A format.
 * Meyers, Effective C++, 224 pgs, Addison-Wesley, 1992, ISBN 0-201-56364-9.
   Covers 50 topics in a short essay format.
 * Meyers, More Effective C++, 336 pgs, Addison-Wesley, 1996, ISBN
   0-201-63371-X.  Covers 35 topics in a short essay format.

Similarities: All three books are extensively illustrated with code examples.
All three are excellent, insightful, useful, gold plated books.  All three have
excellent sales records.

Differences: Cline and Lomow's examples are complete, working programs rather
than code fragments or standalone classes.  Meyers contains numerous
line-drawings that illustrate the points.

==============================================================================

[26.6] What are some best-of-breed C++ legality guides?

Here's my personal (subjective and selective) short-list of must-read C++
legality guides, alphabetically by author:
 * Lippman, C++ Primer, Second Edition, 614 pgs, Addison-Wesley, 1991, ISBN
   0-201-54848-8.  Very readable/approachable.
 * Stroustrup, The C++ Programming Language, Second Edition, 646 pgs,
   Addison-Wesley, 1991, ISBN 0-201-53992-6.  Covers a lot of ground.

Similarities: Both books are excellent overviews of almost every language
feature.  I reviewed them for back-to-back issues of C++ Report, and I said
that they are both top notch, gold plated, excellent books.  Both have
excellent sales records.

Differences: If you don't know C, Lippman's book is better for you.  If you
know C and you want to cover a lot of ground quickly, Stroustrup's book is
better for you.

==============================================================================

[26.7] Are there other OO books that are relevant to OO/C++?

Yes! Tons!

The morality[26.5] and legality[26.6] categories listed above were for OO
programming.  The areas of OO analysis and OO design are also relevant, and
have their own best-of-breed books.

There are tons and tons of good books in these other areas.  I'll only mention
the book that's closest to the code on the grand spectrum from specification
down to code (this is, after all, the FAQ on C++, not the FAQ on OO analysis or
OO design).  Here's my personal (subjective and selective) short-list of
must-read books on OO design patterns:
 * Gamma et al., Design Patterns, 395 pgs, Addison-Wesley, 1995, ISBN
   0-201-63361-2.  Describes "patterns" that commonly show up in good OO
   designs.  You must read this book if you intend to do OO design work.

==============================================================================

SECTION [27]: Learning C++ if you already know Smalltalk


[27.1] What's the difference between C++ and Smalltalk?

Both fully support the OO paradigm.  Neither is categorically and universally
"better" than the other[6.4].  But there are differences.  The most important
differences are:
 * Static typing vs. dynamic typing[27.2]
 * Whether inheritance must be used only for subtyping[27.5]
 * Value vs. reference semantics[28]

Note: Many new C++ programmers come from a Smalltalk background.  If that's
you, this section will tell you the most important things you need know to make
your transition.  Please don't get the notion that either language is somehow
"inferior" or "bad"[6.4], or that this section is promoting one language over
the other (I am not a language bigot; I serve on both the ANSI C++ and ANSI
Smalltalk standardization committees[6.11]).  Instead, this section is designed
to help you understand (and embrace!) the differences.

==============================================================================

[27.2] What is "static typing," and how is it similar/dissimilar to Smalltalk?

Static typing says the compiler checks the type safety of every operation
statically (at compile-time), rather than to generate code which will check
things at run-time.  For example, with static typing, the signature matching
for function arguments is checked at compile time, not at run-time.  An
improper match is flagged as an error by the compiler, not by the run-time
system.

In OO code, the most common "typing mismatch" is invoking a member function
against an object which isn't prepared to handle the operation.  E.g., if class
Fred has member function f() but not g(), and fred is an instance of class
Fred, then fred.f() is legal and fred.g() is illegal.  C++ (statically typed)
catches the error at compile time, and Smalltalk (dynamically typed) catches
the error at run-time.  (Technically speaking, C++ is like Pascal --pseudo
statically typed-- since pointer casts and unions can be used to violate the
typing system; which reminds me: only use pointer casts and unions as often as
you use gotos).

==============================================================================

[27.3] Which is a better fit for C++: "static typing" or "dynamic typing"?

[For context, please read the previous FAQ[27.2]].

If you want to use C++ most effectively, use it as a statically typed language.

C++ is flexible enough that you can (via pointer casts, unions, and #define
macros) make it "look" like Smalltalk.  But don't.  Which reminds me: try to
avoid #define[9.3].

There are places where pointer casts and unions are necessary and even
wholesome, but they should be used carefully and sparingly.  A pointer cast
tells the compiler to believe you.  An incorrect pointer cast might corrupt
your heap, scribble into memory owned by other objects, call nonexistent member
functions, and cause general failures.  It's not a pretty sight.  If you avoid
these and related constructs, you can make your C++ code both safer and faster,
since anything that can be checked at compile time is something that doesn't
have to be done at run-time.

If you're interested in using a pointer cast, use the new style pointer casts.
The most common example of these is to change old-style pointer casts such as
(X*)p into new-style dynamic casts such as dynamic_cast<X*>(p), where p is a
pointer and X is a type.  In addition to dynamic_cast, there is static_cast and
const_cast, but dynamic_cast is the one that simulates most of the advantages
of dynamic typing (the other is the typeid() construct; for example,
typeid(*p).name() will return the name of the type of *p).

==============================================================================

[27.4] How do you use inheritance in C++, and is that different from Smalltalk?

Some people believe that the purpose of inheritance is code reuse.  In C++,
this is wrong.  Stated plainly, "inheritance is not for code reuse."

The purpose of inheritance in C++ is to express interface compliance
(subtyping), not to get code reuse.  In C++, code reuse usually comes via
composition rather than via inheritance.  In other words, inheritance is mainly
a specification technique rather than an implementation technique.

This is a major difference with Smalltalk, where there is only one form of
inheritance (C++ provides private inheritance to mean "share the code but don't
conform to the interface", and public inheritance to mean "kind-of").  The
Smalltalk language proper (as opposed to coding practice) allows you to have
the effect of "hiding" an inherited method by providing an override that calls
the "does not understand" method.  Furthermore Smalltalk allows a conceptual
"is-a" relationship to exist apart from the subclassing hierarchy (subtypes
don't have to be subclasses; e.g., you can make something that is-a Stack yet
doesn't inherit from class Stack).

In contrast, C++ is more restrictive about inheritance: there's no way to make
a "conceptual is-a" relationship without using inheritance (the C++ work-around
is to separate interface from implementation via ABCs[22.3]).  The C++ compiler
exploits the added semantic information associated with public inheritance to
provide static typing.

==============================================================================

[27.5] What are the practical consequences of differences in Smalltalk/C++
       inheritance?

[For context, please read the previous FAQ[27.4]].

Smalltalk lets you make a subtype that isn't a subclass, and allows you to make
a subclass that isn't a subtype.  This allows Smalltalk programmers to be very
carefree in putting data (bits, representation, data structure) into a class
(e.g., you might put a linked list into class Stack).  After all, if someone
wants an array-based-Stack, they don't have to inherit from Stack; they could
inherit such a class from Array if desired, even though an ArrayBasedStack is
not a kind-of Array!

In C++, you can't be nearly as carefree.  Only mechanism (member function
code), but not representation (data bits) can be overridden in subclasses.
Therefore you're usually better off not putting the data structure in a class.
This leads to a stronger reliance on abstract base classes[22.3].

I like to think of the difference between an ATV and a Maseratti.  An ATV (all
terrain vehicle) is more fun, since you can "play around" by driving through
fields, streams, sidewalks, and the like.  A Maseratti, on the other hand, gets
you there faster, but it forces you to stay on the road.  My advice to C++
programmers is simple: stay on the road.  Even if you're one of those people
who like the "expressive freedom" to drive through the bushes, don't do it in
C++; it's not a good fit.

==============================================================================

SECTION [28]: Reference and value semantics


[28.1] What is value and/or reference semantics, and which is best in C++?

With reference semantics, assignment is a pointer-copy (i.e., a reference).
Value (or "copy") semantics mean assignment copies the value, not just the
pointer.  C++ gives you the choice: use the assignment operator to copy the
value (copy/value semantics), or use a pointer-copy to copy a pointer
(reference semantics).  C++ allows you to override the assignment operator to
do anything your heart desires, however the default (and most common) choice is
to copy the value.

Pros of reference semantics: flexibility and dynamic binding (you get dynamic
binding in C++ only when you pass by pointer or pass by reference, not when you
pass by value).

Pros of value semantics: speed.  "Speed" seems like an odd benefit to for a
feature that requires an object (vs. a pointer) to be copied, but the fact of
the matter is that one usually accesses an object more than one copies the
object, so the cost of the occasional copies is (usually) more than offset by
the benefit of having an actual object rather than a pointer to an object.

There are three cases when you have an actual object as opposed to a pointer to
an object: local objects, global/static objects, and fully contained member
objects in a class.  The most important of these is the last ("composition").

More info about copy-vs-reference semantics is given in the next FAQs.  Please
read them all to get a balanced perspective.  The first few have intentionally
been slanted toward value semantics, so if you only read the first few of the
following FAQs, you'll get a warped perspective.

Assignment has other issues (e.g., shallow vs. deep copy) which are not covered
here.

==============================================================================

[28.2] What is "virtual data," and how-can / why-would I use it in C++?

virtual data allows a derived class to change the exact class of a base class's
member object.  virtual data isn't strictly "supported" by C++, however it can
be simulated in C++.  It ain't pretty, but it works.

To simulate virtual data in C++, the base class must have a pointer to the
member object, and the derived class must provide a new object to be pointed to
by the base class's pointer.  The base class would also have one or more normal
constructors that provide their own referent (again via new), and the base
class's destructor would delete the referent.

For example, class Stack might have an Array member object (using a pointer),
and derived class StretchableStack might override the base class member data
from Array to StretchableArray.  For this to work, StretchableArray would have
to inherit from Array, so Stack would have an Array*.  Stack's normal
constructors would initialize this Array* with a new Array, but Stack would
also have a (possibly protected:) constructor that would accept an Array* from
a derived class.  StretchableArray's constructor would provide a
new StretchableArray to this special constructor.

Pros:
 * Easier implementation of StretchableStack (most of the code is inherited)
 * Users can pass a StretchableStack as a kind-of Stack

Cons:
 * Adds an extra layer of indirection to access the Array
 * Adds some extra freestore allocation overhead (both new and delete)
 * Adds some extra dynamic binding overhead (reason given in next FAQ)

In other words, we succeeded at making our job easier as the implementer of
StretchableStack, but all our users pay for it[28.5].  Unfortunately the extra
overhead was imposed on both users of StretchableStack and on users of Stack.

Please read the rest of this section.  (You will not get a balanced perspective
without the others.)

==============================================================================

[28.3] What's the difference between virtual data and dynamic data?

The easiest way to see the distinction is by an analogy with virtual
functions[20]: A virtual member function means the declaration (signature) must
stay the same in subclasses, but the definition (body) can be overridden.  The
overriddenness of an inherited member function is a static property of the
subclass; it doesn't change dynamically throughout the life of any particular
object, nor is it possible for distinct objects of the subclass to have
distinct definitions of the member function.

Now go back and re-read the previous paragraph, but make these substitutions:
 * "member function" --> "member object"
 * "signature" --> "type"
 * "body" --> "exact class"

After this, you'll have a working definition of virtual data.

Another way to look at this is to distinguish "per-object" member functions
from "dynamic" member functions.  A "per-object" member function is a member
function that is potentially different in any given instance of an object, and
could be implemented by burying a function pointer in the object; this pointer
could be const, since the pointer will never be changed throughout the object's
life.  A "dynamic" member function is a member function that will change
dynamically over time; this could also be implemented by a function pointer,
but the function pointer would not be const.

Extending the analogy, this gives us three distinct concepts for data members:
 * virtual data: the definition (class) of the member object is overridable in
   subclasses provided its declaration ("type") remains the same, and this
   overriddenness is a static property of the subclass
 * per-object-data: any given object of a class can instantiate a different
   conformal (same type) member object upon initialization (usually a "wrapper"
   object), and the exact class of the member object is a static property of
   the object that wraps it
 * dynamic-data: the member object's exact class can change dynamically over
   time

The reason they all look so much the same is that none of this is "supported"
in C++.  It's all merely "allowed," and in this case, the mechanism for faking
each of these is the same: a pointer to a (probably abstract) base class.  In a
language that made these "first class" abstraction mechanisms, the difference
would be more striking, since they'd each have a different syntactic variant.

==============================================================================

[28.4] Should I normally use pointers to freestore allocated objects for my
       data members, or should I use "composition"?

Composition.

Your member objects should normally be "contained" in the composite object (but
not always; "wrapper" objects are a good example of where you want a
pointer/reference; also the N-to-1-uses-a relationship needs something like a
pointer/reference).

There are three reasons why fully contained member objects ("composition") has
better performance than pointers to freestore-allocated member objects:
 * Extra layer of indirection every time you need to access the member object
 * Extra freestore allocations (new in constructor, delete in destructor)
 * Extra dynamic binding (reason given below)

==============================================================================

[28.5] What are relative costs of the 3 performance hits associated with
       allocating member objects from the freestore?

The three performance hits are enumerated in the previous FAQ:
 * By itself, an extra layer of indirection is small potatoes
 * Freestore allocations can be a performance issue (the performance of the
   typical implementation of malloc() degrades when there are many allocations;
   OO software can easily become "freestore bound" unless you're careful)
 * The extra dynamic binding comes from having a pointer rather than an object.
   Whenever the C++ compiler can know an object's exact class, virtual[20]
   function calls can be statically bound, which allows inlining.  Inlining
   allows zillions (would you believe half a dozen :-) optimization
   opportunities such as procedural integration, register lifetime issues, etc.
   The C++ compiler can know an object's exact class in three circumstances:
   local variables, global/static variables, and fully-contained member objects

Thus fully-contained member objects allow significant optimizations that
wouldn't be possible under the "member objects-by-pointer" approach.  This is
the main reason that languages which enforce reference-semantics have
"inherent" performance challenges.

Note: Please read the next three FAQs to get a balanced perspective!

==============================================================================

[28.6] Are "inline virtual" member functions ever actually "inlined"?

Occasionally...

When the object is referenced via a pointer or a reference, a call to a
virtual[20] function cannot be inlined, since the call must be resolved
dynamically.  Reason: the compiler can't know which actual code to call until
run-time (i.e., dynamically), since the code may be from a derived class that
was created after the caller was compiled.

Therefore the only time an inline virtual call can be inlined is when the
compiler knows the "exact class" of the object which is the target of the
virtual function call.  This can happen only when the compiler has an actual
object rather than a pointer or reference to an object.  I.e., either with a
local object, a global/static object, or a fully contained object inside a
composite.

Note that the difference between inlining and non-inlining is normally much
more significant than the difference between a regular function call and a
virtual function call.  For example, the difference between a regular function
call and a virtual function call is often just two extra memory references, but
the difference between an inline function and a non-inline function can be as
much as an order of magnitude (for zillions of calls to insignificant member
functions, loss of inlining virtual functions can result in 25X speed
degradation! [Doug Lea, "Customization in C++," proc Usenix C++ 1990]).

A practical consequence of this insight: don't get bogged down in the endless
debates (or sales tactics!) of compiler/language vendors who compare the cost
of a virtual function call on their language/compiler with the same on another
language/compiler.  Such comparisons are largely meaningless when compared with
the ability of the language/compiler to "inline expand" member function calls.
I.e., many language implementation vendors make a big stink about how good
their dispatch strategy is, but if these implementations don't inline member
function calls, the overall system performance would be poor, since it is
inlining --not dispatching-- that has the greatest performance impact.

Note: Please read the next two FAQs to see the other side of this coin!

==============================================================================

[28.7] Sounds like I should never use reference semantics, right?

Wrong.

Reference semantics are A Good Thing.  We can't live without pointers.  We just
don't want our s/w to be One Gigantic Rats Nest Of Pointers.  In C++, you can
pick and choose where you want reference semantics (pointers/references) and
where you'd like value semantics (where objects physically contain other
objects etc).  In a large system, there should be a balance.  However if you
implement absolutely everything as a pointer, you'll get enormous speed hits.

Objects near the problem skin are larger than higher level objects.  The
identity of these "problem space" abstractions is usually more important than
their "value." Thus reference semantics should be used for problem-space
objects.

Note that these problem space objects are normally at a higher level of
abstraction than the solution space objects, so the problem space objects
normally have a relatively lower frequency of interaction.  Therefore C++ gives
us an ideal situation: we choose reference semantics for objects that need
unique identity or that are too large to copy, and we can choose value
semantics for the others.  Thus the highest frequency objects will end up with
value semantics, since we install flexibility where it doesn't hurt us (only),
and we install performance where we need it most!

These are some of the many issues the come into play with real OO design.
OO/C++ mastery takes time and high quality training.  If you want a powerful
tool, you've got to invest.

Don't stop now! Read the next FAQ too!!

==============================================================================

[28.8] Does the poor performance of reference semantics mean I should
       pass-by-value?

Nope.

The previous FAQ were talking about member objects, not parameters.  Generally,
objects that are part of an inheritance hierarchy should be passed by reference
or by pointer, not by value, since only then do you get the (desired) dynamic
binding (pass-by-value doesn't mix with inheritance, since larger subclass
objects get "sliced" when passed by value as a base class object).

Unless compelling reasons are given to the contrary, member objects should be
by value and parameters should be by reference.  The discussion in the previous
few FAQs indicates some of the "compelling reasons" for when member objects
should be by reference.

==============================================================================